Fuel cells provide an environmentally friendly source of electrical current. One type of high temperature fuel cell used for generating electrical power, particularly envisaged for larger scale stationary power generation, is the molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC). The MCFC includes an anode channel for receiving a flow of hydrogen gas (or a fuel gas which reacts in the anode channel to generate hydrogen by steam reforming and water gas shift reactions), a cathode channel for receiving a flow of oxygen gas, and a porous matrix containing a molten carbonate electrolyte which separates the anode channel from the cathode channel. Oxygen and carbon dioxide in the cathode channel react to form carbonate ions, which cross the electrolyte to react with hydrogen in the anode channel to generate a flow of electrons. As the hydrogen is consumed, carbon monoxide is shifted by steam to generate additional hydrogen. Carbon dioxide and water vapor are produced in the anode channel by oxidation of fuel components, and by reduction of carbonate ions from the electrolyte. Typical operating temperature of molten carbonate fuel cells is about 600° to about 650° C.
Another type of high temperature fuel cell is the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). The SOFC includes an anode channel for receiving a flow of hydrogen gas (or a fuel gas which reacts in the anode channel to generate hydrogen by steam reforming and water gas shift reactions), a cathode channel for receiving a flow of oxygen gas, and a solid electrolyte which is a ceramic membrane conductive to oxygen ions and separates the anode channel from the cathode channel. Oxygen in the cathode channel dissociates to oxygen ions, which cross the electrolyte to react with hydrogen in the anode channel to generate a flow of electrons. As the hydrogen is consumed, carbon monoxide may be oxidized directly or may be shifted by steam to generate additional hydrogen. Carbon dioxide and water vapor are produced in the anode channel by oxidation of fuel components. Typical operating temperature of solid oxide fuel cells is about 500° to about 1000° C.
Except in the rare instance that hydrogen (e.g. recovered from refinery or chemical process off-gases, or else generated from renewable energy by electrolysis of water) is directly available as fuel, hydrogen must be generated from fossil fuels by an appropriate fuel processing system. For stationary power generation, it is preferred to generate hydrogen from natural gas by steam reforming or partial oxidation to produce “syngas” comprising a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, steam and some unreacted methane. As hydrogen is consumed in the fuel cell anode channel, much of the carbon monoxide reacts with steam by water gas shift to generate more hydrogen and more carbon dioxide. Other carbonaceous feedstocks (e.g. heavier hydrocarbons, coal, or biomass) may also be reacted with oxygen and steam to generate syngas by partial oxidation, gasification or autothermal reforming. The fuel cell may also be operated on hydrogen or syngas that has been generated externally.
A great advantage of MCFC and SOFC systems is that their high operating temperature facilitates close thermal integration between the fuel cell and the fuel processing system. The high temperature also allows the elimination of noble metal catalysts required by lower temperature fuel cells.
Prior art MCFC systems have serious limitations associated with their high temperature operation, and with their inherent need to supply carbon dioxide to the cathode while removing it from the anode. Prior art SOFC systems face even more challenging temperature regimes, and are disadvantaged by the degradation of cell voltages at very high temperatures under conventional operating conditions.
The lower heat of combustion of a fuel usefully defines the energy (enthalpy change of the reaction) that may be generated by oxidizing that fuel. The electrochemical energy that can be generated by an ideal fuel cell is however the free energy change of the reaction, which is smaller than the enthalpy change. The difference between the enthalpy change and the free energy change is the product of the entropy change of the reaction multiplied by the absolute temperature. This difference widens at higher temperatures, so higher temperature fuel cells inherently convert a lower fraction of the fuel energy to electrical power at high efficiency, while a larger fraction of the fuel energy is available only as heat which must be converted to electrical power by a thermodynamic bottoming cycle (e.g. steam or gas turbine plant) at lower efficiency.
Accumulation of reaction products (carbon dioxide and steam) on the fuel cell anode opposes the electrochemical reaction, so that the free energy is reduced. Higher partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide over the cathode, and higher partial pressure of hydrogen over the anode, drive the reaction forward so that the free energy is increased. Unfortunately, the reaction depletes the oxygen and carbon dioxide in the cathode channel and depletes hydrogen in the anode channel while rapidly increasing the backpressure of carbon dioxide in the anode channel. Hence the free energy change is reduced, directly reducing the cell voltage of the fuel stack. This degrades the electrical efficiency of the system, while increasing the heat that must be converted at already lower efficiency by the thermal bottoming cycle.
The free energy change is simply the product of the electromotive force (“E”) of the cell and the charge transferred per mole by the reaction (“2F”), where the factor of two reflects the valency of the carbonate ion. The following Nernst relation for a MCFC expresses the above described sensitivity of the electromotive force to the partial pressures of the electrochemical reactants in the anode and cathode channels, where the standard electromotive force (“Eo”) is referred to all components at standard conditions and with water as vapor.   E  =            E      o        -                  RT                  2          ⁢          F                    ⁢              ln        ⁡                  [                                                    P                                  H2O                  ⁡                                      (                    anode                    )                                                              ·                              P                                  CO2                  ⁡                                      (                    anode                    )                                                                                                      P                                  H2                  ⁡                                      (                    anode                    )                                                              ·                              P                                  O2                  ⁡                                      (                    cathode                    )                                                  0.5                            ·                              P                                  CO2                  ⁡                                      (                    cathode                    )                                                                                ]                    
Prior art MCFC systems do not provide any satisfactory solution for this problem which gravely compromises attainable overall efficiency. The challenge is to devise a method for sustaining high hydrogen concentration over the anode and high oxygen concentration over the cathode, while efficiently transferring hot carbon dioxide from the anode to the cathode. Despite repeated attempts to devise an effective carbon dioxide transfer technology that would be compatible with MCFC operating conditions, no such attempt has been adequately successful.
The accepted method for supplying carbon dioxide to the MCFC cathode has been to burn a fraction of the anode exhaust gas (including unreacted hydrogen and other fuel components) to provide carbon dioxide mixed with steam and nitrogen to be mixed with additional air providing oxygen to the cathode. This approach has serious limitations. Even more of the original fuel value is unavailable for relatively efficient electrochemical power generation, in view of additional combustion whose heat can only be absorbed usefully by the thermal bottoming cycle. Also, the oxygen/nitrogen ratio of the cathode gas is even more dilute than ambient air, further reducing cell voltage and hence transferring more power generation load less efficiently onto the thermal bottoming plant.
The following Nernst relation for a SOFC expresses the sensitivity of the electromotive force to the partial pressures of the electrochemical reactants in the anode and cathode channels, with the simplifying assumption that CO is converted by the water gas shift reaction. This sensitivity is of course greatest at the highest working temperatures of SOFC.   E  =            E      o        -                  RT                  2          ⁢          F                    ⁢              ln        ⁡                  [                                    P                              H2O                ⁡                                  (                  anode                  )                                                                                    P                                  H2                  ⁡                                      (                    anode                    )                                                              ·                              P                                  O2                  ⁡                                      (                    cathode                    )                                                  0.5                                              ]                    
Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) systems are one possibility for providing fuel gases to a fuel cell. PSA systems and vacuum pressure swing adsorption systems (VPSA) separate gas fractions from a gas mixture by coordinating pressure cycling and flow reversals over an adsorber or adsorbent bed which preferentially adsorbs a more readily adsorbed gas component relative to a less readily adsorbed gas component of the mixture. The total pressure of the gas mixture in the adsorber is elevated while the gas mixture is flowing through the adsorber from a first end to a second end thereof, and is reduced while the gas mixture is flowing through the adsorbent from the second end back to the first end. As the PSA cycle is repeated, the less readily adsorbed component is concentrated adjacent the second end of the adsorber, while the more readily adsorbed component is concentrated adjacent the first end of the adsorber. As a result, a “light” product (a gas fraction depleted in the more readily adsorbed component and enriched in the less readily adsorbed component) is delivered from the second end of the adsorber, and a “heavy” product (a gas fraction enriched in the more strongly adsorbed component) is exhausted from the first end of the adsorber.
However, the conventional system for implementing pressure swing adsorption or vacuum pressure swing adsorption uses two or more stationary adsorbers in parallel, with multiple two-way directional valves at each end of each adsorber to connect the adsorbers in alternating sequence to pressure sources and sinks. This system is often cumbersome and expensive to implement due to the large size of the adsorbers and the complexity of the valving required. The valves would not be capable of operation at MCFC working temperatures. Further, the conventional PSA system makes inefficient use of applied energy because of irreversible gas expansion steps as adsorbers are cyclically pressurized and depressurized within the PSA process. Conventional PSA systems are bulky and heavy because of their low cycle frequency and consequent large adsorbent inventory. In addition, prior art PSA technology may not be capable of operation at such high temperature. Also, adsorbents which can separate carbon dioxide in the presence of steam must be provided for any anode gas PSA separation working at elevated temperature.
Combined cycle power plants with a gas turbine cycle integrated with a fuel cell system have been disclosed. In addition, commonly-assigned PCT Published International Patent Application No. WO 00/16425 provides examples of how PSA units may be integrated with gas turbine power plants, or with fuel cell power plants having a gas turbine auxiliary engine.
A further need addressed by the disclosed systems and processes is for mitigation of global warming driven by cumulative emissions of carbon dioxide from fossil-fuelled power generation.
The disclosed systems and processes also address the following environmental needs:
                A. concentrated CO2 delivered for disposal or sequestration.        B. substantially complete elimination of NOx emissions by complete elimination of combustion in the presence of nitrogen.        C. high overall efficiency to achieve most sustainable use of energy resources.        